Amid global demographic changes, understanding factors associated with subjective well-being among rural older adults has gained prominence. This study investigated the pathways linking psychological capital and subjective well-being, focusing on the mediating roles of subjective socioeconomic status, justice perceptions, and marital satisfaction.

Data from the 2017 China General Social Survey were analyzed using a multi-mediation approach. This study examined both the independent and sequential mediating effects of subjective socioeconomic status, justice perceptions, and marital satisfaction in the relationship between psychological capital and subjective well-being.

The findings identified six significant pathways through which psychological capital is associated with subjective well-being. These pathways demonstrated the independent and sequential roles of subjective socioeconomic status, justice perceptions, and marital satisfaction, thus providing new insights into how these variables are connected in the context of older adults in rural areas.

This study confirms the positive relationship between psychological capital and subjective well-being among older adults in rural areas. It highlights the importance of subjective socioeconomic status, justice perceptions, and marital satisfaction as key mediators in this relationship. The findings enhance understanding of the mechanisms linking psychological capital and subjective well-being while providing valuable guidance for promoting well-being in rural communities. This study also broadens the research focus on psychological capital and offers promising directions for future studies on rural older adults.

Well-being holds dual significance, encompassing individual pursuits while also serving as a cornerstone of societal advancement [1]. Across the course of life, well-being exhibits a U-shaped trajectory [2]. Subjective well-being (SWB) holds a significant position within the realm of social psychology and serves as a pivotal concept and focal point of research [3], with the scientific exploration of SWB having undergone rapid advancements [4]. SWB has furthermore transitioned into a distinct policy objective [5] and has emerged as a supplementary indicator of societal progress [6]. The SWB lens finds expansive utility across an array of disciplines, including psychology, management, sociology, and economics.

Against the backdrop of a globally aging population, the phenomenon of population aging has emerged as a pressing global challenge with profound implications for human development [7, 8]. The impact of aging extends to rural socioeconomic development [9], with aging-associated matters resulting in heightening societal attention toward the SWB of older adults [10, 11]. In rural settings, older adults frequently face social vulnerability [12], and attaining sustainable livelihood poses a challenge [13]. The SWB of older rural adults involves comprehensive evaluations of their lives over time that consider both cognitive assessments and emotional experiences [14]. The cognitive aspect includes a thorough evaluation of the quality of life, which involves life satisfaction. Meanwhile, the emotional aspect covers both positive and negative affective states. Therefore, SWB reflects the overall assessment of an individual's life, incorporating life satisfaction, positive affect, and negative affect [15, 16].

Existing literature has extensively explored the concept of well-being and its influencing factors, providing a solid theoretical and empirical foundation for future research. This study underscores the complex interconnections among different dimensions of well-being within the broader context of public policy [17] by aligning with the network theory of well-being, which is an interdisciplinary paradigm guiding well-being research. The SWB of older adults is affected by an array of factors that encompass both universally-applicable predictors and context-specific determinants in distinct societal settings [18]. SWB then emerges as a complex interplay of various factors that combine to form a multidimensional array of conditions [19].

Socio-emotional selectivity theory divides social goals into two dimensions: knowledge acquisition and emotion regulation. When individuals perceive their future as limited, they shift toward pursuing emotionally meaningful goals [20]. As people age and perceive their remaining time as finite, their primary life goals and motivations gradually change toward focusing on achieving SWB and adapting to aging. For older adults, emotional goals play a more significant role in shaping SWB. Despite the extensive body of research dedicated to SWB in older adult cohorts, investigations into the relationship between psychological capital (PsyCap) and SWB in older adults remain relatively nascent. As SWB is a positive self-assessment of life, it is essential to examine the role of PsyCap in shaping SWB in older rural adults. PsyCap is associated with an individual's mental state and behavior through mediating variables. The present study provides valuable insights for advancing positive aging initiatives by exploring the mechanisms linking PsyCap to SWB among rural older adults. Building on the established relationship between PsyCap and SWB, this study aims to clarify the mediating pathways that explain how PsyCap relates to SWB in this population. Based on theoretical analysis and existing literature, the study empirically examines the relationship between PsyCap and the SWB of rural older adults.

The number of variables involved in high-dimensional big data research for psychology and sociology has been increasing. Consequently, exploring, validating, and refining theories, as well as identifying key variables, have become more critical. Previous research used a random forest model with Shapley value decomposition to identify factors influencing the well-being of older adults, determining that socioeconomic status (SES), justice perceptions, and marital status are key universal variables [21].

PsyCap refers to an individual's positive psychological state that develops through growth and life experiences. It is a positive, unique, and measurable psychological capacity that enables individuals to maintain a sense of internal control while pursuing their goals. PsyCap spans four dimensions: self-efficacy, hope, optimism, and resilience [22, 23]. These four components interact synergistically, reinforcing each other. PsyCap is a higher-order construct, with an overall value and influence that is greater than that of its individual components [24]. PsyCap, driven by the pursuit of a better life, plays a central role in the realm of individual positivity, grounded in the frameworks of positive psychology and organizational behavior [25]. Extending beyond human and social capital, PsyCap emphasizes the exploration and development of an individual's intrinsic strengths and positive psychological traits. PsyCap, physical capital, and social capital are interconnected and serve as driving factors of well-being [25]. This conceptual framework provides a quantifiable and cultivable pool of psychological resources. By enhancing their PsyCap, individuals can gain significant competitive advantages [26]. PsyCap in rural older adults can enhance their social participation [27], helping them lead better lives and improve their quality of life [28].

PsyCap is positively associated with overall SWB [29, 30]. Rooted in the framework of positive psychology, it has been shown to impact occupational SWB [31, 32] and is linked to employee satisfaction [33]. PsyCap is a strong predictor of SWB among primary and secondary school educators [34], exhibiting a significant positive correlation with student SWB [35]. Furthermore, it acts as a buffer against psychological distress among students [36], thus ultimately influencing student SWB [37]. Empirical evidence confirms the positive connection between these two factors. According to the broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions, personal resources are constructed as individuals experience more positive emotions in their daily lives, thereby enhancing their SWB [38]. As a positive psychological state and emotional experience, PsyCap leads to more positive emotional experiences and greater SWB. Previous studies have shown a positive correlation between PsyCap and SWB in older adults [39]. However, research examining the relationship between PsyCap and SWB in rural older adults is still limited.

Scholarly inquiries into PsyCap are broad and inclusive, with empirical evidence affirming its connection with well-being across heterogeneous demographic strata. Nonetheless, exploration of this relationship within the rural older adult population remains limited. This study aims to examine rural older adults to clarify the link between PsyCap and SWB. With this objective in mind, the following research proposition is put forward:

SES represents the cumulative set of resources available to individuals, including personal income, wealth, educational attainment, and societal standing. SES reflects an individual's position within the social hierarchy, and it furthermore influences life trajectories [40]. Subjective SES refers to an individual's self-assessment of their position within society, reflecting their subjective judgment of where they stand relative to others [41]. Subjective SES is linked to SWB [42] and plays a key role in shaping the SWB of rural older adults [43]. The relationship between SES and SWB is stronger in contexts with higher population density, lower income disparity, and limited social mobility [41]. As an intrinsic component of the social backdrop, subjective SES significantly influences individuals' life experiences and serves as a foundation for societal participation and interaction. A supportive relationship exists between PsyCap and subjective SES [44, 45]. Subjective SES is closely intertwined with SWB [42, 46]. PsyCap may assist rural older adults with low SES in terms of perceiving greater support and resources, which can enhance their justice perceptions and shape their views on issues such as opportunity equality. These perceptions are associated with improvements in their SWB [47].

Justice perceptions grounded in the principles of justice significantly influence SWB [48]. These perceptions involve rural inhabitants' evaluations of fairness in opportunities, procedural justice, and distributive equity in their daily lives [49]. This encompasses both societal-level distributive justice cognition and individual-level situational justice cognition, which affect how individuals assess their life circumstances [50]. The framework of justice perception serves as a foundational pillar of national-level SWB, with belief systems related to justice perceptions showing nuanced relationships. This connection is particularly pronounced in social groups facing disadvantages [51, 52]. In society, individuals enjoy equal opportunities and fair distribution systems, which support better livelihood and potentially enhance overall well-being [53]. The stronger the perceptions of justice, the greater the sense of well-being. Compared to urban older adults, rural older adults are more vulnerable [54], as they belong to a socially disadvantaged group and often face less favorable living conditions. However, older adults can significantly improve their SWB by living in a just society where they have equal rights to participate and develop. PsyCap can help address injustices faced by individuals with limited opportunities [24]. Even when confronted with physical or psychological challenges, a fair society can partially compensate for these disadvantages and make it easier for individuals to experience a sense of well-being [55].

Marital satisfaction refers to the subjective evaluation or attitude toward marital relationships [56]. As a crucial life event, marriage forms a salient tie to happiness that in turn prominently couples with SWB. Marital satisfaction influences older adults and plays a significant role in their later years. Marital support functions as a mitigating force, counteracting stress and fostering resilience. Conversely, suboptimal marital quality begets distress [57,58,59]. In the differential investment in resources model, social bonds among older adults assume a cardinal role, with emotional intimacy and familial ties serving as cardinal dimensions; the marital relationship occupies a pivotal berth within these dimensions [60]. Individuals with higher levels of PsyCap tend to report higher marital satisfaction [61], which is a key predictor of the SWB of older adults [62], as it is closely linked to successful aging and overall well-being [63].

To explore these mechanisms, the present study integrates existing theories and empirical research to propose potential pathways linking PsyCap to SWB. Specifically, the study hypothesizes that subjective SES, justice perceptions, and marital satisfaction mediate the relationship between PsyCap and SWB. The second research hypothesis is as follows:

Conservation of resources theory, proposed by Hobfoll, emphasizes how individuals cope with stress and challenges by protecting, accumulating, and utilizing their limited resources [64]. Subjective SES, justice perceptions, and marital satisfaction are key sources of these resources, while PsyCap acts as a psychological resource to help individuals regulate and cope with stress. These resources operate across individual, family, and societal levels. PsyCap is associated with rural older adults' ability to cope with life's challenges and is linked to SWB through the mediating roles of subjective SES, justice perceptions, and marital satisfaction [65].

While prior research has primarily focused on the direct relationship between PsyCap and SWB or on single mediating factors, there has been limited exploration of the combined roles of multiple mediators. A single-mediation model may not capture the complexity of these mechanisms. To address this gap, the present study constructs a comprehensive multiple mediation model to empirically investigate how subjective SES, justice perceptions, and marital satisfaction jointly mediate the relationship between PsyCap and SWB. Hypothesis 2 examines the independent mediating effects of these variables, while Hypothesis 3 explores their collective roles as sequential mediators within a serial mediation model. These hypotheses allow for a more comprehensive understanding of how multiple mediators operate both independently and sequentially to explain the relationship between PsyCap and SWB. This approach offers a nuanced understanding of the interconnections among these variables, shedding light on the mechanisms that shape the SWB of rural older adults. Accordingly, the following research hypothesis is proposed:

Hypotheses H1, H2, and H3 were developed based on theoretical analyses and previous empirical studies. H1 examines the association between PsyCap and SWB, positing that PsyCap is positively related to the SWB of rural older adults. H2 focuses on the independent mediating effects of subjective SES, justice perceptions, and marital satisfaction. Specifically, it examines how these variables separately mediate the relationship between PsyCap and SWB, highlighting their unique contributions to this association. H3 builds on H2 by investigating the sequential mediating effects of subjective SES, justice perceptions, and marital satisfaction. This hypothesis explores how these mediators collectively operate in a serial mediation model to link PsyCap and SWB. By identifying the ordered pathways through which these factors work together, H3 provides a more nuanced understanding of the mechanisms connecting PsyCap and SWB.

Within this framework, the study utilizes data from the China General Social Survey (CGSS) to explore these hypotheses. By constructing regression models and mediation effect structures, the analysis rigorously examines both the independent and sequential mediating roles of subjective SES, justice perceptions, and marital satisfaction. These analyses aim to clarify the mechanisms underlying the relationship between PsyCap and SWB, offering theoretical insights for enhancing the well-being of rural older adults.

The dataset employed in the present study was procured from the survey data of the CGSS project conducted in 2017. In 2003, the CGSS project embarked on comprehensive nationwide surveys, employing a meticulously designed multistage stratified sampling approach. This method facilitates the careful collection of actual status data encompassing a diverse spectrum of demographic groups, a comprehensive array of behavioral patterns, attitudinal orientations, and pertinent influencing factors. The CGSS 2017 dataset offers a reliable and high-quality foundation for exploring the relationship between PsyCap and the SWB of rural older adults. To ensure data quality and accuracy of the statistical analyses, a data curation process was undertaken. This comprised retaining samples drawn from rural locales while excluding samples pertaining to individuals below the age of 60. Furthermore, efforts were made to address instances of missing data, instances of refusal to respond, and instances where respondents indicated their response as "unknown." Ultimately, 1778 valid samples were obtained, forming the basis for subsequent comprehensive analyses.

Outcome variable

The outcome variable of this study pertained to the SWB of older rural adults. SWB encompasses psychological experiences that reflect the factual judgments of rural older adults regarding their objective life conditions and states [66]. SWB among rural older adults refers to the cognitive and emotional evaluations of their own lives [14], and is the result of a comprehensive self-evaluation and can be measured using a self-rated SWB. The use of self-reported measures to assess SWB has demonstrated high validity and reliability [4, 6, 67]. Specifically, SWB was measured using the question, "Overall, how satisfied are you with your current well-being?" The responses are ranked on a five-point scale, ranging from "very dissatisfied" to "very satisfied," affording numerical values spanning 1 to 5, whereby higher values denote heightened SWB [48, 49, 68].

Predictor variable

The predictor variable in this study was the PsyCap of older adults living in rural areas. Expanding on prior research, PsyCap is divided into four constituent dimensions: self-efficacy, hope, optimism, and resilience [22, 23, 25]. PsyCap, as a positive psychological resource, is a multidimensional construct that can develop across various life domains and can influence well-being. As a higher-order structure, PsyCap holds greater overall value and significance than its individual components [24]. Self-efficacy was assessed through self-perceived successful cognitive functioning, as indicated in the questionnaire; hope was measured by expecting things to develop in the best direction and anticipating positive outcomes; optimism was evaluated based on a positive attitude and the absence of distress; and resilience was measured through an approach that addresses problems with solutions and the relentless pursuit of goals [23, 30]. After reverse-coding distress, the sum of responses to the seven questions was used to calculate the PsyCap score, where higher values denoted increased PsyCap among rural older adults.

Mediating variables

The mediating variables included the subjective SES, justice perceptions, and marital satisfaction. According to previous research, Subjective SES is typically measured using subjective assessments that reflect an individual's perception of their own SES [41]. Subjective SES was assessed through the question "Overall, in today's society, which SES do you belong to?" Respondents chose from a range of numerical options reflecting a continuum from lower to upper classes, with values ranging from 1 to 5 [69]. Justice perceptions were assessed via the query: "Overall, do you think today's society is justice?" With response options ranging from complete injustice to complete justice, the assigned values can range from 1 to 5 [49]. Marital satisfaction was assessed using the question, "Overall, are you satisfied with your marital life?" Participants provided responses on a scale that included "very satisfied," "satisfied," "indifferent," "dissatisfied," and "very dissatisfied," with reverse coding and numerical values assigned ranging from 1 to 5. Higher numerical values indicated increased marital satisfaction [70].

Control variables

As an embodiment of methodological rigor, the selection of control variables was steered by the acknowledgment of multiple subjective and objective factors that impinge upon rural older adults' SWB [4]. Gender, a potent predictor of SWB [71], assumes prominence in this framework. Additionally, education, a variable intricately linked to the SWB of rural older adults, merits consideration [68]. Finally, income was incorporated, as it is a predictor of SWB among rural older adults [39]. Gender was defined as a categorical variable, where 0 corresponded to male and 1 corresponded to female. Education was categorized based on the highest level of educational attainment, with values assigned on a scale from 1 to 5, ranging from no education to university level. Income is measured by the total income from the previous year.

To ensure the consistency of scale measurement, this study employs a 5-point Likert scale for the dependent variable, SWB, as well as the mediating variables of subjective SES, justice perceptions, and marital satisfaction. A Likert scale is often treated as an ordinal variable in regression analysis [72, 73]. Spearman's rank correlation analysis was used to assess the correlations among key variables. To test the proposed hypotheses, this study employed SPSS 26.0 Process V4.2. H2 was tested using Model 4, which examines the independent mediating effects of subjective SES, justice perceptions, and marital satisfaction. H3 was tested using Model 6, which analyzes the sequential mediating effects of these variables. In this investigation, PsyCap was treated as the predictor variable; SWB of rural older adults was treated as the outcome variable; and subjective SES, justice perceptions, and marital satisfaction were treated as mediators. Gender, education, and income were included as control variables. The Bootstrap method was employed for testing with a confidence interval of 95%. A total of 5000 bootstrap samples were drawn to analyze both the independent mediating effects and the sequential mediating effects. This stepwise approach ensures a robust examination of the hypothesized mechanisms, enhancing the reliability and validity of the study's empirical findings.

Descriptive and Spearman's rank correlation analyses were conducted to explore the fundamental attributes of the key variables with respect to the CGSS dataset. Table 1 presents the means, standard deviations, and correlation matrices of the cardinal variables that were examined. The findings indicate a significant positive relationship between PsyCap and pivotal constructs such as subjective SES, justice perceptions, marital satisfaction, and SWB. Furthermore, they establish significant positive correlations between SWB and each of the aforementioned factors, namely subjective SES, justice perceptions, and marital satisfaction. Preliminary insights from the descriptive and correlation analyses provide an essential initial perspective on the complex interactions among the key study variables. This foundational understanding drives further exploration and an in-depth examination of the hypotheses.

Building on the results of the correlation analysis, this study aims to clarify the mechanisms by which PsyCap is related to SWB among older adults living in rural areas. This was achieved by constructing regression and multiple mediation models to examine the mediating effects of subjective SES, justice perceptions, and marital satisfaction. Based on the regression results presented in Table 2, higher levels of PsyCap are significantly associated with greater SWB among rural older adults.

Regression analysis results reveal that PsyCap significantly and positively predicts subjective SES (β = 0.326, P < 0.01), justice perceptions (β = 0.141, P < 0.05), and marital satisfaction (β = 0.284, P < 0.01). Subjective SES exhibits a positive predictive effect on both SWB (β = 0.124, P < 0.05) and justice perceptions (β = 0.226, P < 0.01). Justice perceptions positively predicted both SWB (β = 0.210, P < 0.01) and marital satisfaction (β = 0.188, P < 0.01). Additionally, marital satisfaction positively predicted SWB (β = 0.245, P < 0.01).

To further understand the mechanisms underlying the relationship between PsyCap and SWB in rural older adults, the mediating effects of subjective SES, justice perceptions, and marital satisfaction were examined. Based on H2, the independent mediating effects of subjective SES, justice perceptions, and marital satisfaction were tested. In addition, H3 examined the sequential mediating effects of these variables. The results of the bootstrap method for mediation analysis are presented in Table 3.

The results indicate that subjective SES, justice perceptions, and marital satisfaction independently mediate the relationship between PsyCap and SWB. Specifically, H2(a) was supported (indirect effect = 0.041), H2(b) was supported (indirect effect = 0.030), and H2(c) was supported (indirect effect = 0.070). Additionally, the mediation analysis confirms that subjective SES, justice perceptions, and marital satisfaction collectively serve as sequential mediators linking PsyCap to SWB, thus supporting H3.

The overall indirect effect size was 0.163, accounting for 36.96% of the total effect of PsyCap on SWB. The mediation analysis identified seven specific indirect pathways. Among these, six pathways showed significant mediation effects, as their confidence intervals did not contain zero; meanwhile, the fifth pathway was not statistically significant. For details and a visual representation of the mediation effects, see Fig. 1.

Sequential mediating model of subjective SES, justice perceptions, and marital satisfaction. * P < 0.05, ** P < 0.01. Control variables (gender, education, and income) have been included

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This study conducted a comprehensive exploration of the pathways through which PsyCap is associated with the SWB of rural older adults, highlighting the pivotal role of subjective SES, justice perceptions, and marital satisfaction as mediators in shaping this relationship. By examining these mediating variables, the present study uncovers the mechanisms through which individual, familial, and societal factors influence the SWB of rural older adults, while also offering new insights for public policy development.

Foundational role of psycap in supporting SWB

This study unequivocally substantiates the affirmative predictive effect of PsyCap on the SWB of rural older adults, effectively validating Hypothesis 1. Evidently, PsyCap assumes a pivotal role as a potent resource within the realm of rural older adults [24], with an augmented possession of these resources correlating with an increased likelihood of experiencing positive emotions, and subsequently, a heightened overall SWB. As an antecedent to SWB, PsyCap manifests through positive emotions and personality traits, therefore establishing a robust and positive correlation between PsyCap and SWB. The theoretical perspective offered by the network theory aptly elucidates the tangible link between PsyCap and SWB within the specific context of rural older adults [17, 74].

Emphasizing PsyCap as the bedrock and the prerequisite for SWB, this study underscores its pivotal role in augmenting the well-being of older rural adults. During periods of adversity and stress, PsyCap significantly bolsters the resilience of this demographic. Elevated levels of PsyCap are intricately connected to heightened experiences of positive emotions, thus effectively strengthening the preservation and elevation of SWB [75]. In addition, PsyCap helps fight loneliness [76], which contributes to the psychological richness that underpins a fulfilling life [77]. As the PsyCap reservoir of rural older adults expands, their levels of SWB increase commensurately. These factors work in tandem to promote positive and satisfying life experiences.

Independent mediation mechanisms linking psycap and SWB in rural older adults

The present study examines the mediating mechanisms through which PsyCap is associated with SWB in rural older adults. Unlike previous research that primarily focused on the direct relationship between these two constructs, the present study extends established notions by exploring the multiple mediating roles of subjective SES, justice perceptions, and marital satisfaction. The present findings confirm that these mediators independently link PsyCap to SWB, providing support for Hypothesis 2.

Rural older adults with higher PsyCap levels tend to view their surroundings more positively and adopt a more optimistic attitude when facing adversity [78]. This proactive orientation culminated in enhanced social adaptation. Furthermore, PsyCap is associated with subjective SES given that the latter is characterized as a composite metric of an individual's social resources [40, 79, 80]. Notably, subjective SES plays a significant role in shaping the SWB of rural older adults [41], which supports the connection between PsyCap, subjective SES, and SWB.

The multifaceted role of PsyCap is evident in its association with learning and its ability to shape justice perceptions [81]. PsyCap has been linked to positive effects on organizational justice [82], and social justice perceptions are associated with SWB [55]. For older adults, maintaining a belief in social justice is particularly relevant, as it strengthens their SWB [83]. These findings align with the observed relationships between PsyCap, justice perceptions, and SWB in this study.

The present study explored another important aspect of PsyCap: its relationship with marital satisfaction. Research shows that individuals with higher levels of PsyCap tend to cultivate more positive attitudes toward their families and marital relationships. This positive outcome has contributed to greater marital satisfaction [61]. Furthermore, marital satisfaction was significantly associated with SWB [57], reinforcing the connection between PsyCap, marital satisfaction, and SWB.

The present study contributes to a deeper understanding of the mediating pathways through which PsyCap relates to SWB in rural older adults. By identifying subjective SES, justice perceptions, and marital satisfaction as key mediators, the findings highlight how individual, familial, and societal factors collectively shape SWB. These insights provide valuable evidence for developing policies aimed at improving the SWB of rural older adults through a comprehensive consideration of these interconnected variables.

Sequential mediation pathways linking psycap and SWB in rural older adults

This study also examined the sequential mediating effects of subjective SES, justice perceptions, and marital satisfaction, highlighting their sequential roles in linking PsyCap to SWB. These findings provide empirical support for Hypothesis 3, validating the presence of this nuanced mediation framework. The present research offers a clearer understanding of the complex mechanisms underlying the relationship between PsyCap and SWB, contributing to the broader field of well-being studies.

There is a clear positive association between PsyCap and subjective SES, and subjective SES is further associated with justice perceptions [84]. The pursuit of self-benefit is linked to positive psychological outcomes, such as justice perceptions, SWB, and life satisfaction [50, 85,86,87]. Factors like subjective SES and justice perceptions are associated with SWB [88], thus supporting the relationships observed between PsyCap, subjective SES, justice perceptions, and SWB.

The Interactionist Model suggests a connection between subjective SES and family life, indicating an association between subjective SES and marital satisfaction [89]. However, the confidence interval for the indirect relationship between PsyCap, subjective SES, marital satisfaction, and SWB contains zero, indicating no statistically significant association. This finding deviates from the expectations set by the Interactionist Model, which may be attributed to the unique characteristics of rural older adults. While previous studies have documented associations between subjective SES and marital satisfaction in younger and middle-aged populations [56, 90], the present work highlights a divergence with respect to rural older adults. This difference may stem from specific attributes of rural older adults exhibiting high subjective SES [91].

Within a self-determination theory framework, PsyCap is associated with justice perceptions, which in turn are linked to marital satisfaction [5, 55, 92, 93]. This relationship may be more prominent in societies with higher levels of gender equality [94]. Marital satisfaction, as an important factor influencing SWB [57, 58], aligns with the pathways from PsyCap to justice perceptions, marital satisfaction, and SWB. These findings offer insights into the mediating role of justice perceptions and marital satisfaction in the relationship between PsyCap and SWB.

Sustainable well-being theory provides a broad perspective on the factors shaping well-being. In this context, environmental factors such as subjective SES and justice perceptions play a significant role, alongside personal attributes and purposeful activities [95]. PsyCap, as a key personal resource, is linked to marital satisfaction, which reflects intentional actions that contribute to overall well-being. The empirical evidence supports associations between subjective SES, justice perceptions, marital satisfaction, and SWB among older adults, which in turn suggest pathways that can enhance sustainable SWB in this population [96, 97]. These findings align with a sequential framework connecting PsyCap, subjective SES, justice perceptions, marital satisfaction, and SWB.

The insights derived from this study shed light on the landscape of rural older adults' well-being, and offer practical guidance for policy and practice. First, creating conditions that promote the development of PsyCap among rural older adults has emerged as a powerful avenue for empowerment. Amplifying their PsyCap equips them with a sense of control, allowing to better navigate issues and bolstering their self-assurance in unknown situations. There is an urgent need for an age-friendly society that is attuned to the spiritual and emotional aspirations of rural older adult residents, thereby catalyzing a surge in their PsyCap reserves [98]. Second, improving perceptions of justice among rural older adults is crucial. Strengthening rural social security to promote fairness and equity can foster an environment where justice and equality thrive, offering equal opportunities and resources. Supporting institutional and policy frameworks that uphold social justice is essential for ensuring that rural older adults have access to the same opportunities and benefits as others. Third, caring for and supporting rural older adults requires a focus on their sustainable livelihoods, with particular attention to enhancing their PsyCap, improving their perceptions of subjective SES, and promoting both process fairness and outcome justice. Additionally, addressing marital satisfaction is essential. Together, these efforts are vital for improving the SWB of rural older adults, ensuring they lead fulfilling and dignified lives.

The present study connects theoretical findings to practical implications by offering empirical evidence on the associations between PsyCap and SWB among rural older adults. Utilizing CGSS data, the study examines the complex relationships between factors influencing SWB in this population, providing a clearer understanding of the mechanisms involved. The findings highlight how PsyCap is linked to SWB, and they offer actionable insights for improving the well-being of rural older adults. Furthermore, this study underscores the importance of addressing the well-being challenges faced by vulnerable populations and proposes new directions for research and policy. In the context of a rapidly aging world, this investigation emphasizes the practical relevance of PsyCap as a resource associated with SWB among rural older adults.

First, the cross-sectional nature of the data hampers the revelation of dynamic patterns in PsyCap and SWB development. To address this limitation, future research could enhance the longitudinal tracking of PsyCap and SWB, thereby examining the trends in their developmental changes and impact effects across time in order to elucidate certain causal inferences. Second, the variables used in this study are not objective indicators. Due to data constraints, many of the variables utilized were subjective and based on individual perceptions. Furthermore, some variables may have interrelated effects. Future studies could incorporate objective measurement indicators and explore other relevant variables to gain deeper insights into related research topics. Third, there is room for expansion of the research scope. Future research should focus on reinforcing interventions that target PsyCap enhancement among rural older adults. This entails delving into PsyCap influence mechanisms and providing an actionable empirical foundation for the augmentation and cultivation of PsyCap. In conclusion, although the present study yields valuable insights, it is crucial to acknowledge the aforementioned limitations. Future research should further explore these areas to enhance our understanding of the mechanisms linking PsyCap to rural older adults' SWB. In addition, such efforts will offer valuable insights into practical interventions and policy development.

In conclusion, the well-being of rural older adults is a vital indicator of their overall quality of life and plays a significant role in economic and social development, as well as public policy. However, the association between PsyCap and SWB in this group has not been extensively explored. This study examines the multiple mediating roles of subjective SES, justice perceptions, and marital satisfaction in the relationship between PsyCap and SWB.

The findings provide valuable insights into the mechanisms through which PsyCap is associated with SWB, revealing new areas for inquiry. The results confirm the positive association between PsyCap and the SWB of older rural adults, expanding the scope of research on PsyCap and its implications. Furthermore, this study highlights the roles of subjective SES, justice perceptions, and marital satisfaction as both independent and sequential mediators shaping the relationship between PsyCap and SWB. Through an empirical investigation, this study identified six key mediating pathways linking PsyCap to SWB, each offering actionable insights for improving the well-being of rural older adults and promoting positive aging in rural communities. This work contributes to academic discourse by confirming the positive relationship between PsyCap and SWB and deepening our understanding of the mediating mechanisms involved.

The present study provides valuable insights into the SWB of rural older adults and opens new avenues for future research in the field of SWB. The relationships among PsyCap, subjective SES, justice perceptions, and marital satisfaction contribute to a deeper understanding of the factors shaping overall SWB. The findings shed light on the complex ways in which these elements are interconnected, offering a richer and more comprehensive view of SWB in the lives of older rural adults.

SWB:

Subjective well-being

PsyCap:

Psychological capital

SES:

Socioeconomic status

CGSS:

China general social survey

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YJ S designed the study, performed the statistical analysis, wrote the first draft, polished the manuscript, and approved the submitted version.

Correspondence to Yujin Sun.

This study analyzed the publicly available data only. No experiments were conducted, nor were patients involved in this study. Therefore, this study does not require ethical approval.

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The authors declare no competing interests.

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