Before that, DRC believed that the EAC (East African Community) led Nairobi Process, an alternative peace effort, was biased towards Rwanda. In February, analysts from the Institute for Security Studies said that DRC and Rwanda had been “forum shopping” with the Nairobi and Luanda processes – “favouring mediators perceived to support their side.”

“AU processes are difficult because there is almost always a perception of bias from one side,” says van Dalen. “Finding an impartial mediator in perception has been very difficult on the continent as geopolitical blocs and small alliances form. The AU itself is having less and less ability to mediate.”

However, the Angolan peace effort has not been entirely futile. Ochieng says the process created a crucial channel for communication between the parties.

“Having a constant anchor point for this conflict was definitely important, if it was not there, then there would have been no one to hold either party to account,” she says.  

More than that, it has created an important framework for disengaging conflicting forces in the region, which will be useful in the longer term, van Dalen says. “The EAC (East African Community) and SADC framework being developed will be a guiding force in developing a longer term solution. External mediators can definitely help to get initial steps forward, and that’s what we are seeing here.”

The AU, recognising the need to keep the momentum of their peace efforts, launched a new mediation process headed by the President of Togo, Faure Gnassingbe, and facilitated by a number of former African leaders appointed by the SADC and EAC.

Whether this will be a successful remains to be seen, says Owusu. “It comes down again to the carrot and stick theory. There is a lack of leverage, there is a lack of what can you give me for having talks with my enemy? If Angola could not achieve peace, then I don’t see the Togo president achieving it.”

While African mediation attempts have stuttered, Qatar’s mediation has reached a diplomatic breakthrough over recent weeks. Not only have they brought the DRC, Rwanda, and M23 to direct talks, but they also led to the April 23rd ceasefire while the parties work towards a permanent truce.

Recent efforts have also been bolstered by the role of the United States. On April 25, representatives from DRC and Rwanda signed a declaration of principles and agreed to work towards reaching a draft peace agreement by 2nd May. They also committed to respected each other’s sovereignty and “territorial integrity.”

At gatherings this year, African leaders have repeatedly called for increased cooperation between African countries, but with interstate tensions prevalent in several regions of the continent, the goal remains more of an aspiration than a reality. The inability of African countries and the AU to succeed in DR Congo mediation – while brokers like Qatar and the US yield results – are a setback for the cause of continental unity. That lack of unity, says Owusu, could also impact economic integration through mechanisms like the African Continental Free Trade Area. 

“Sometimes leaders say that we should separate politics from economics, and that the African continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) is likely to lead to regional growth without the need of talking about politics. Yet, in Africa most of the countries have governments tied in with the economies.”