This study aims to investigate the impact of physical exercise on adolescent social anxiety and to elucidate the serial mediating roles of sports self-efficacy and expressive suppression within this context.

Utilizing a convenience random cluster sampling technique, this study surveyed 2500 primary and secondary school students across Sichuan, Guangdong, Shandong, Henan, and Jiangxi provinces. The survey utilized validated scales to assess physical exercise, sports self-efficacy, expressive suppression, and social anxiety among adolescents.

The study revealed that: (1) Physical exercise has a significant negative correlation with social anxiety (r = -0.32, p < 0.01); (2) Sports self-efficacy significantly mediated the relationship between physical exercise and social anxiety, with an indirect effect of -0.15 (95% CI [-0.22, -0.09]); (3) Expressive suppression significantly mediated the relationship between physical exercise and social anxiety, with an indirect effect of -0.11 (95% CI [-0.17, -0.06]); (4) Sports self-efficacy and expressive suppression exerted a significant serial mediating effect on the relationship between physical exercise and social anxiety, with an indirect effect of -0.05 (95% CI [-0.08, -0.02]).

Physical exercise not only directly alleviates social anxiety in adolescents but also indirectly diminishes social anxiety through the enhancement of sports self-efficacy and the reduction of expressive suppression.

Social anxiety, a common psychological phenomenon among adolescents, is characterized by fear and discomfort in social or performance situations [1]. It comprises three dimensions: fear of negative evaluation, social avoidance, and distress in both novel and general contexts [2]. Social anxiety significantly impairs adolescents’ daily functioning, social skills, academic performance, and psychological well-being [3,4,5]. With an estimated prevalence of 15–20%, recent studies suggest an upward trend in adolescent social anxiety [4], making it a critical issue requiring attention.

Physical exercise is increasingly recognized for its role in reducing social anxiety while enhancing psychological resilience and self-efficacy [6, 7]. Studies have shown that activities like baseball and sand play effectively alleviate social anxiety symptoms [8]. However, the underlying psychological mechanisms remain unclear [9]. Drawing from previous research, we propose that sports self-efficacy and expressive suppression are key pathways linking physical exercise to social anxiety [10, 11].

Sports self-efficacy, the belief in one’s ability to engage in physical activities, plays a crucial role in emotional regulation and coping strategies [12]. Adolescents with higher sports self-efficacy demonstrate greater confidence in social situations and employ adaptive mechanisms such as cognitive reappraisal and social support, reducing social anxiety [13]. According to Bandura’s self-efficacy theory, these beliefs significantly influence emotional regulation and behavioral responses [4, 9]. Moreover, research suggests that individuals with strong self-efficacy tend to engage in more effective emotional regulation strategies, such as cognitive reappraisal, which further contributes to reduced social anxiety [14].

Conversely, expressive suppression, or the conscious inhibition of emotional expression, is linked to heightened social anxiety [15]. Individuals who frequently suppress emotions may experience increased distress and avoidant behaviors, exacerbating social anxiety [16]. Studies indicate that excessive reliance on expressive suppression correlates with persistent social anxiety symptoms [17]. Given its role in emotion regulation, expressive suppression may mediate the relationship between physical exercise and social anxiety.

This study aims to explore these psychological mechanisms, providing insights into how physical exercise contributes to adolescent mental health. The findings may help educators, coaches, and mental health professionals develop interventions that enhance self-efficacy and promote healthier emotion regulation strategies.

Firstly, in the literature review section, we focused on studies published after 2010, primarily selecting empirical research and meta-analyses from databases like PubMed, Web of Science, and Google Scholar. Besides, we selected the literature with theoretical and empirical foundations in the field of physical exercise, sports self-efficacy, expressive suppression, and social anxiety, particularly those related to social cognitive theory and emotion regulation theory. Secondly, based on the literature review, we formulated research hypotheses.

Physical exercise has been demonstrated to affect social anxiety [18]. The cognitive model of social anxiety by Clark and Wells posits that avoidance behavior and safety behaviors are core maintenance factors of social anxiety [19]. Social Cognitive Theory offers a comprehensive framework for understanding the interplay between physical exercise and social anxiety, emphasizing the dynamic interactions among personal, environmental, and behavioral factors [20]. From this theoretical vantage point, adolescent social anxiety emerges as a complex outcome of the intricate interplay between personal cognitions (such as self-efficacy) [21], the social environment (such as peer pressure), and behavioral performance (such as social avoidance). As a positive behavioral intervention, physical exercise has the potential to alleviate social anxiety by modulating these interactions [22]. Empirical research substantiates the relationship between physical exercise and social anxiety [23]. For instance, Sun and Meng have indicated that short-term physical exercise can promptly enhance the emotional state of adolescents and mitigate anxiety [8]. Ren and Li have observed that adolescents engaged in team sports exhibit lower levels of social anxiety compared to those who exercise alone, likely due to the increased opportunities for social practice and the peer support inherent in team sports [24]. Menescardi and Estevan have indicated that long-term regular physical exercise (over six months) not only fosters a more positive social network and support system for adolescents but also sustains the reduction of social anxiety levels [25]. These studies primarily concentrate on the positive effect of physical exercise in reducing adolescent social anxiety, although the magnitude of the effect may vary depending on the specific circumstances.

Based on the social cognitive theory and empirical research, we can infer that physical exercise is likely to have a holistic impact on adolescents’ cognition, emotion, and behavior, thereby potentially alleviating social anxiety symptoms.

Sports self-efficacy, as a core concept in social cognitive theory [26], plays a pivotal mediating role in explaining how physical exercise affects adolescent social anxiety [27]. According to Social Cognitive Theory, physical exercise enhances adolescents’ sports self-efficacy through various pathways, including the provision of successful experiences, vicarious experiences, verbal persuasion, and physiological arousal, which in turn affects their levels of social anxiety [28]. Sports self-efficacy is a crucial factor in an individual’s adaptation to both internal and external environments. Adolescents with high sports self-efficacy are more inclined to perceive difficulties as challenges rather than threats, exhibiting greater confidence and coping ability when facing social situations [29]. This positive psychological state not only aids in reducing social anxiety but also motivates individuals to engage more actively in social activities, establishing a virtuous cycle [30]. From the vantage point of Compensatory Effect Theory, the core of adolescent social anxiety is often attributed to a deficiency in self-efficacy [31], and physical exercise is recognized as a potent means to augment this self-efficacy [32]. A plethora of empirical studies consistently demonstrates a positive association between physical exercise and sports self-efficacy [33]. Moreover, there is a well-established negative correlation between sports self-efficacy and social anxiety [34]. Adolescents with elevated sports self-efficacy consistently demonstrate reduced social anxiety and enhanced social adaptability compared to their counterparts with lower sports self-efficacy [35, 36]. For instance, a cross-sectional study among middle school students revealed that those with high sports self-efficacy showed lower levels of social anxiety and greater social adaptability [37]. A six-month longitudinal study further corroborated that physical exercise indirectly mitigated social anxiety among college students by strengthening their sports self-efficacy [38].

Drawing on prior research and theoretical frameworks, we deduce that sports self-efficacy serves as a mediating variable in the relationship between physical exercise and adolescent social anxiety. More specifically, physical exercise is posited to exert an indirect effect on the reduction of social anxiety levels by bolstering individuals’ sports self-efficacy.

Researchers have demonstrated a significant negative relationship between expressive suppression and physical exercise [39]. This relationship is further elucidated by emotional regulation theory, which posits that physical exercise mitigates the propensity for expressive suppression by facilitating emotional venting and social interaction [40]. Adolescents engaging in sports activities have increased opportunities to naturally express their emotions and thoughts, reducing expressive suppression [39]. Regular engagement in physical exercise not only enhances emotional awareness but also strengthens an individual’s confidence in expressing their emotions. The frequent and organic social interactions that occur during sports activities encourage a more open and genuine form of self-expression [41].

Researchers have consistently indicated a significant positive correlation between expressive suppression and social anxiety [42,43,44], underscoring the role of expressive suppression as a maladaptive emotional regulation strategy [45]. Expressive suppression not only hinders natural emotional expression but also exacerbates social discomfort, leading to increased nervousness and discomfort in social situations [46]. The compensatory effect theory posits that adolescents who are unable to freely express their emotions may experience heightened social anxiety [47]. Suppressing emotions in response to social pressures fails to alleviate social anxiety effectively and may, in fact, intensify internal conflicts and social distress [20]. Empirical research has also shown that individuals who habitually suppress their emotions in social situations often experience heightened levels of stress and anxiety [48]. Furthermore, the inability to express emotions openly in social contexts can result in feelings of isolation and alienation, further intensifying social anxiety [49]. Over time, this maladaptive coping strategy creates a feedback loop: social anxiety drives emotional suppression, which further intensifies the anxiety, perpetuating the cycle [50].

The relationship between physical exercise and adolescent social anxiety is increasingly being recognized as significantly influenced by the mediating role of expressive suppression. Expressive suppression, defined as the conscious inhibition of emotions [51], is a core psychological construct that negatively impacts emotional experience and social behavior [52, 53]. It is posited as an important mediating variable in understanding the mechanisms linking physical exercise to social anxiety [6, 54]. Clark and Wells’ cognitive model of social anxiety positions expressive suppression as a form of avoidance or safety behavior, where individuals suppress their emotions to evade potential negative evaluations in social contexts [14]. While this strategy may provide temporary relief from anxiety [55], it ultimately reinforces the fear of social situations and exacerbates social anxiety over time [56]. Chronic emotional suppression leads to heightened tension and discomfort in social settings, intensifying social anxiety symptoms [57]. This model underscores that avoidance and safety behaviors maintain individuals’ fear of social situations and hinder their ability to adapt and cope with social challenges. Empirical studies have revealed that regular physical exercise is associated with lower levels of expressive suppression and social anxiety, further supporting the mediating role of expressive suppression [58, 59].

Drawing from the preceding analysis, it appears probable that expressive suppression plays a mediating role in the relationship between physical exercise and adolescent social anxiety.

The preceding literature review has established that both sports self-efficacy and expressive suppression are key mediators in the relationship between physical exercise and adolescent social anxiety. For example, Li et al. have found that sports self-efficacy significantly mediates the relationship between physical exercise and adolescent social anxiety, accounting for 35% of the total effect [34]. Similarly, Jiao et al. have shown that expressive suppression predicts the impact of physical exercise on social anxiety, with the mediating effect accounting for 28% of the total effect [60]. These findings emphasize the value of exploring individual mediating effects and lay the foundation for the serial mediating model of this study. However, current research tends to focus on either sports self-efficacy or expressive suppression as the sole mediating variable, without considering the potential interplay between these and other psychological factors. This approach overlooks the possibility that multiple mediating mechanisms may operate concurrently, thereby providing a more comprehensive understanding of how physical exercise influences adolescent social anxiety. To fully understand the internal mechanisms by which physical exercise affects social anxiety, it is necessary to explore the serial mediating effects of sports self-efficacy and expressive suppression.

Social cognitive theory underscores the reciprocal influences among an individual’s behavior [9], cognition, and environmental factors [61]. Accordingly, physical exercise, as a behavioral intervention, is posited to enhance an individual’s sports self-efficacy by offering successful experiences and physiological arousal [62].

This increased sports self-efficacy subsequently impacts cognitive processes, including the cognition and regulation of emotions [63]. Emotional regulation theory provides a framework for understanding how sports self-efficacy influences expressive suppression [39]. Individuals with high sports self-efficacy are more likely to employ positive emotional regulation strategies, such as reappraisal, rather than engaging in negative expressive suppression [64]. This positive approach to emotional regulation is instrumental in reducing social anxiety. Additionally, Ecological Systems Theory highlighted that there is a dynamic interplay between the individual and the environment [65]. Physical exercise provides a relatively safe and supportive environment for adolescents to promote the enhancement of sports self-efficacy and the reduction of expressive suppression [6].

Based on the above analysis, it can be concluded that sports self-efficacy and expressive suppression plays a serial mediating role in the relationship between physical exercise and adolescent social anxiety.

This study aims to explore the complex psychological mechanisms by which physical exercise affects adolescent social anxiety, focusing on the mediating roles of sports self-efficacy and expressive suppression. The following hypotheses are proposed:

The proposed research model is illustrated in Fig. 1 below.

The research hypothesis model

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This study employed a convenience random cluster sampling approach to conduct field investigations in primary, junior, and senior high schools across Sichuan, Guangdong, Shandong, Henan, and Jiangxi provinces from April to May 2024. A power analysis using G*Power 3.1 software, assuming a small effect size (f² = 0.02), a significance level of α = 0.05, and a desired statistical power of 0.90, determined a minimum sample size of 1037 participants. To account for potential invalid responses, 2500 paper questionnaires were distributed.

Uniform training was provided to clarify survey items and precautions. Class teachers explained the research purpose and procedures to participants, ensuring voluntary participation. Informed consent forms were signed by participants and their guardians. Researchers supervised the process on-site, addressing participant inquiries and ensuring data quality. After collection, incomplete or invalid questionnaires were excluded, yielding 2176 valid responses (valid recovery rate: 87.04%). This study was approved by the university’s academic ethics committee (Approval Number: LSNU202404085) and adhered to the Helsinki Declaration.

International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ)

The study used the abbreviated version of the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ) to measure participants’ physical exercise levels [66, 67]. Three items were selected to assess the frequency and duration of high-intensity physical activity, moderate-intensity physical activity, and walking over the past seven days. Scores were converted into Metabolic Equivalent of Task (MET) minutes per week, with higher scores indicating higher activity levels. The Cronbach’s α coefficient for this study was 0.821, and the inter-item correlation coefficients ranged from 0.563 to 0.712 (p < 0.01), indicating good reliability and structural validity.

Social Anxiety Scale for Adolescents (SAS-A)

The Social Anxiety Scale for Adolescents (SAS-A), originally developed by La Greca & Lopez and revised by Stefanie A. et al. [68], was used to assess social anxiety [2]. This scale consists of 18 items across three dimensions: fear of negative evaluation (8 items), social avoidance and distress in new situations (6 items), and social avoidance and distress in general situations (4 items) [69]. A 5-point Likert scale was applied, with higher scores indicating greater social anxiety. The Cronbach’s α coefficient was 0.921, and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) results indicated good structural validity (e.g., χ2/df = 2.176, GFI = 0.942, RMSEA = 0.037).

Self-Efficacy for Exercise Scale (SEES)

The Self-Efficacy for Exercise Scale (SEES) [70], originally developed by Bandura and adapted by Xiang et al. for Chinese samples, was used to measure exercise self-efficacy [71, 72]. It comprises 18 items across three dimensions: persistence self-efficacy (8 items), overcoming barriers self-efficacy (5 items), and planning self-efficacy (5 items). An 11-point Likert scale was employed, with higher scores indicating greater exercise self-efficacy. The Cronbach’s α coefficient was 0.937, and CFA results demonstrated good structural validity (e.g., χ²/df = 2.315, GFI = 0.931, RMSEA = 0.041) [73].

Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ)

The expressive suppression subscale of the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ) [74,75,76], containing 4 items, was used to assess participants’ tendency to suppress emotional expression. A pilot test was conducted to ensure that the questions were understandable for adolescents [77]. A 7-point Likert scale was applied, with higher scores indicating a greater tendency for expressive suppression. The Cronbach’s α coefficient was 0.792, and inter-item correlation coefficients ranged from 0.385 to 0.624 (p < 0.01), indicating good reliability and validity.

Data analysis was conducted using SPSS 27.0. Descriptive statistics were calculated to examine the distribution characteristics of all variables. Pearson correlation coefficients were used to explore relationships between variables. Multiple linear regression was employed to assess the direct predictive effects of physical exercise on social anxiety and the mediating roles of exercise self-efficacy and expressive suppression. To test chain mediation effects, the PROCESS macro (Model 6) by Hayes was applied with 5000 bootstrap resamples to compute 95% confidence intervals [78]. Demographic variables (gender, age, and grade) were controlled in all regression analyses. A significance level of α = 0.05 was used for all tests.

The study employed a paper-based questionnaire survey, which raises concerns about potential common method bias. To address this concern, we performed Harman’s single-factor test [79], which involved conducting an exploratory factor analysis on all variables without rotation. The principal component analysis revealed that the first factor accounted for 28.37% of the variance, falling below the benchmark threshold of 40%. This finding suggests that common method bias does not significantly affect our study, thereby validating the integrity of our empirical research (Table 1).

In this study, we surveyed a total of 2,176 adolescents, with a notable female majority, accounting for 77.16% of the respondents, compared to 22.84% who were male. Participants’ ages ranged from 6 to 18 years, with the largest contingent being between 10 and 13 years old, representing 48.34% of the total sample. The geographical distribution of participants was fairly even, with urban students making up 39.38%, suburban students 37.96%, and rural students 22.66% of the sample.

As shown in Table 2, a robust positive correlation exists between physical exercise and sports self-efficacy, with a correlation coefficient of 0.524 that is statistically significant at the p < 0.01 level. Conversely, physical exercise exhibits a significant negative correlation with both expressive suppression (r = −0.381, p < 0.01) and social anxiety (r = −0.432, p < 0.01). Similarly, sports self-efficacy is negatively associated with expressive suppression (r = −0.452, p < 0.01) and social anxiety (r = −0.494, p < 0.01). Additionally, expressive suppression and social anxiety are positively correlated (r = 0.562, p < 0.01). The data above highlight the intricate interplay among physical exercise, sports self-efficacy, expressive suppression, and social anxiety, laying the groundwork for subsequent data analysis.

The chain mediation analysis results show that sports self-efficacy and expressive suppression significantly mediate the relationship between physical exercise and social anxiety. Specifically, physical exercise not only directly reduces social anxiety but also indirectly affects social anxiety through the mediating roles of sports self-efficacy and expressive suppression.

Physical exercise is a significant and negative predictor of social anxiety (B = −0.545, p < 0.01). After controlling for sports self-efficacy and expressive suppression, physical exercise remains a significant predictor of social anxiety, though the effect is slightly reduced (B = −0.132, p < 0.05). Physical exercise is a significant positive predictor of sports self-efficacy (B = 0.645, p < 0.01) and a significant negative predictor of expressive suppression (B = −0.242, p < 0.01). Similarly, sports self-efficacy is a significant negative predictor of expressive suppression (B = −0.369, p < 0.01) and social anxiety (B = −0.269, p < 0.01). Expressive suppression is a significant positive predictor of social anxiety (B = 0.325, p < 0.01). Overall, the model explains 41.4% of the variance in social anxiety (Adjusted R² = 0.408; see Table 3 for details).

The mediation effect test results (as shown in Table 4) further confirm that sports self-efficacy and expressive suppression play a significant mediating role between the influence of physical exercise on social anxiety, with a total mediation effect value of −0.330. Its 95% confidence interval is [−0.393, −0.267], which does not include 0, indicating a significant mediation effect. Specifically, the mediation effect includes three indirect effect paths: (1) The indirect effect of the “physical exercise → sports self-efficacy → social anxiety” path is −0.173, with a 95% confidence interval of [−0.220, −0.126], accounting for 41.88% of the total mediation effect. (2) The indirect effect of the “physical exercise → expressive suppression → social anxiety” path is −0.079, with a 95% confidence interval of [−0.122, −0.036], accounting for 19.13% of the total mediation effect. (3) The chain mediation path “physical exercise → sports self-efficacy → expressive suppression → social anxiety” produces an indirect effect of −0.078, with a 95% confidence interval of [−0.107, −0.049], accounting for 18.88% of the total mediation effect. The confidence intervals of all three paths do not include 0, indicating that the mediation effects are all significant. Figure 2 delineates the path model illustrating how physical exercise affects social anxiety through the mediation effects of sports self-efficacy and expressive suppression.

The chain mediation effect test diagram. Note: The path coefficients in the diagram are standardized coefficients, and ** indicates P < 0.01

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This study examines how sports self-efficacy and expressive suppression mediate the link between physical exercise and adolescents’ social anxiety. Theoretically, it extends Social Cognitive Theory in adolescent mental health and broadens research on exercise-induced psychological resilience. Practically, regular exercise directly reduces social anxiety while indirectly enhancing social adaptability by boosting sports self-efficacy and potentially lowering expressive suppression [80, 81]. The following discussion elaborates on these findings.

This study revealed that physical exercise significantly and negatively predicts adolescent social anxiety, supporting Hypothesis 1 and aligning with prior research [25]. It validates the application of Social Cognitive Theory in adolescent mental health, emphasizing how exercise enhances cognitive evaluation and environmental adaptability. Regular exercise improves physical fitness, self-confidence, and emotional states [82], thereby reducing social anxiety [83].

A chain mediation pathway was identified: physical exercise boosts sports self-efficacy by improving motor skills and fitness [84], which may reduce expressive suppression [85], ultimately alleviating social anxiety. Conversely, excessive social anxiety can lead to social avoidance, interpersonal issues [86], and academic decline [87], creating a reinforcing cycle. Long-term anxiety may also impair psychological development and increase the risk of other disorders. Even after controlling for gender and age, exercise significantly reduces social anxiety [58, 88,89,90]. Team sports show greater benefits than individual activities, likely due to increased social practice and peer support [91]. However, findings vary by exercise type; aerobic exercise may be more effective than strength training [92, 93], suggesting a complex relationship.

The relationship may not be linear, as moderate-intensity exercise is most effective, while excessive exercise can worsen anxiety [94]. This inverted U-shaped relationship implies moderating factors like intensity, duration, and individual differences [95, 96]. The social environment during exercise also plays a role, with supportive settings enhancing anxiety reduction [97].

Gender differences were noted, with exercise more significantly alleviating social anxiety in females [98, 99], possibly due to greater social pressures and the importance of confidence gained from exercise [100].

While this study explored the mediating roles of sports self-efficacy and expressive suppression, further research is needed to examine other potential mediators, such as body self-concept and emotional regulation. Positive body self-concept may enhance social confidence [101], while improved emotional regulation from exercise could help adolescents better manage social pressures [102, 103]. These areas warrant further exploration to fully understand the mechanisms linking physical exercise to reduced social anxiety.

The regression coefficients of the mediating path revealed that exercise self-efficacy played a partial mediating role in the impact of physical exercise on social anxiety, which supports the establishment of our previous hypothesis H2.

Firstly, physical exercise positively correlates with sports self-efficacy, which in turn negatively correlates with social anxiety, aligning with Social Cognitive Theory [104]. According to the theory, exercise enhances self-efficacy through successful experiences, vicarious learning, verbal persuasion, and physiological arousal, thereby reducing social anxiety [105]. Specifically, adolescents improve sports skills and fitness through exercise, directly boosting self-efficacy [62]. Observing peers succeed provides vicarious experiences, while encouragement from coaches and peers further strengthens self-efficacy [106].

Secondly, the Bootstrap method confirmed the significant mediating role of sports self-efficacy, even after controlling for gender, grade, and age. This suggests that physical exercise indirectly reduces social anxiety by enhancing self-efficacy. Regular exercise improves adolescents’ sports self-efficacy, boosting their self-confidence and social skills, enabling them to better handle social challenges and pressures. These findings align with prior research, such as Yao et al., who linked higher sports self-efficacy to lower social anxiety and greater social adaptability [107]. A meta-analysis further supported that exercise indirectly reduces social anxiety by enhancing self-efficacy [62].

The results further indicate that sports self-efficacy plays a partial mediating role in the relationship between physical exercise and social anxiety, suggesting that while self-efficacy is important, other mechanisms may also be at play. This indicates that sports self-efficacy plays a partial mediating effect in the path of physical exercise affecting social anxiety, and there may be other mediating mechanisms.

Overall, the results of this study confirm the significant role of sports self-efficacy in the impact of physical exercise on social anxiety, providing a new perspective for understanding and intervening in adolescent social anxiety.

The results indicate that expressive suppression significantly mediates the pathway through which physical exercise affects social anxiety, thereby establishing Hypothesis 3 and offering a new perspective on understanding the impact of physical exercise on social anxiety.

The correlation matrix in this study reveals a negative correlation between physical exercise and expressive suppression, while a positive correlation exists between expressive suppression and social anxiety. These findings are derived from the empirical data collected in this research. These findings are consistent with previous research and align with Emotion Regulation Theory [108]. This theory posits that physical exercise can reduce the tendency to suppress expression by providing opportunities for emotional venting and social interaction [40]. Specifically, physical exercise demonstrates multiple advantages in reducing expressive suppression: psychologically, regular physical activity significantly enhances individuals’ emotional awareness and confidence in expression [109]; socially, physical activities promote more frequent and natural interactions among people, creating an environment for more open and authentic self-expression [90]. When these mechanisms act simultaneously or in part, they can significantly reduce the tendency to suppress expression.

The findings reveal that expressive suppression significantly mediates the relationship between physical exercise and social anxiety, suggesting that exercise may reduce social anxiety by lowering individuals' tendency to suppress emotions [110, 111]. Regular physical exercise decreases expressive suppression, enabling individuals to express their emotions and thoughts more openly in social situations, reducing internal conflicts and alleviating social anxiety. This aligns with prior research, such as Hauffe et al., who found a positive correlation between expressive suppression and social anxiety, and that exercise can mitigate suppression, thereby curbing anxiety symptoms [45]. This study confirms the mediating role of expressive suppression, offering new insights into the mechanism. However, the direct effect of exercise on social anxiety suggests that suppression is only a partial mediator, indicating the presence of other potential mediating variables.

Overall, the results of this study once again confirm the important role of expressive suppression in the process of physical exercise affecting social anxiety, providing new insights for a deeper understanding of adolescent social anxiety symptoms.

The results support our hypothesis that physical exercise reduces social anxiety by enhancing exercise self-efficacy and subsequently lowering expressive suppression. This finding not only enriches the existing literature but also provides a new perspective for understanding the internal mechanisms by which physical exercise affects social anxiety.

Firstly, the study results show that physical exercise can significantly improve adolescents’ sports self-efficacy, consistent with the core views of Social Cognitive Theory [109]. Through participation in physical exercise, adolescents gain successful experiences, vicarious experiences, and physiological arousal, all of which are important sources for enhancing self-efficacy. For example, when adolescents successfully complete a sports task, their sports self-efficacy is directly reinforced, and observing peers' successful sports performance can also indirectly enhance their sense of efficacy [112]. Moreover, physiological feedback during exercise, such as increased heart rate and muscle tension, can also enhance individuals’ perception of their abilities [113].

Secondly, the study found a significant negative correlation between sports self-efficacy and expressive suppression. This result supports the view of Emotion Regulation Theory [114]. Individuals with high sports self-efficacy tend to have more confidence in their abilities and are therefore more inclined to adopt positive emotion regulation strategies, such as cognitive reappraisal, rather than negative expressive suppression [115]. Robazza also found that adolescents with high sports self-efficacy are more willing to express their true thoughts and emotions when facing social pressure, rather than choosing to suppress [116].

Furthermore, this study confirms the positive correlation between expressive suppression and social anxiety, consistent with previous research results [117]. This finding supports Hypothesis 4, indicating that physical exercise can alleviate social anxiety through a sequential process involving enhanced self-efficacy and reduced expressive suppression. Long-term expressive suppression may prevent individuals from effectively dealing with emotional experiences in social situations, thereby exacerbating social anxiety. This aligns with the compensation effect theory, which suggests that social anxiety and emotional suppression can reinforce each other over time [118].

This study reveals the serial mediating role of sports self-efficacy and expressive suppression in the relationship between physical exercise and social anxiety, offering a more comprehensive theoretical explanation. Specifically, physical exercise enhances self-efficacy, which reduces expressive suppression, ultimately alleviating social anxiety. This sequential relationship underscores the complex interplay between psychological mechanisms, as demonstrated by Caumeil’s findings that exercise programs improve self-efficacy, reduce suppression, and lower social anxiety [119].

The discovery has significant theoretical and practical implications. Theoretically, it integrates Social Cognitive Theory, Emotion Regulation Theory, and Ecological Systems Theory, providing a systematic framework for understanding how exercise impacts social anxiety. Practically, it highlights the need for interventions that not only promote physical exercise but also enhance self-efficacy and encourage healthier emotional expression. This dual approach can improve adolescents’ psychological adaptability and social functioning, emphasizing the importance of combining physical activity with psychological flexibility in reducing social anxiety.

This study acknowledges several limitations that warrant mention. Firstly, due to its cross-sectional nature, this study cannot establish causality between physical exercise, sports self-efficacy, expressive suppression, and social anxiety, and reverse causality is a possibility. Longitudinal or experimental research is needed to confirm the direction of these relationships. Secondly, the study focused on only two mediating variables—sports self-efficacy and expressive suppression—omitting other potential factors such as social support or broader emotional regulation strategies. Future investigations should incorporate these additional factors to achieve a more comprehensive understanding of the dynamics at play. Thirdly, the study’s sample was confined to middle school students from specific geographical regions, which may limit the generalizability of the findings. Future research should aim to include a more diverse array of populations to enhance the external validity of the results. Lastly, the study did not examine the non-linear effects of exercise on social anxiety, and future research should consider different exercise intensities and durations, as well as individual differences in emotional regulation and personality, for a deeper understanding of their relationship.

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The authors would like to express their gratitude to all the participants who took part in this study. We also thank the school administrators and teachers who facilitated the data collection process. Special thanks to our colleagues at Leshan Normal University and Xiangshui Teacher Development Center for their support and valuable insights throughout the research process.a

Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study. Prior to the survey, informed consent was obtained from the school principals, students, and their parents.

All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. This study was approved by the Academic Committee of Leshan Normal University (LSNU202404085).

J.W. conducted data analysis and wrote the initial draft of the manuscript. Y.S. was responsible for translation and preliminary research. X.Z. and J.H. organized the survey, distributed questionnaires, and managed data collection. All authors contributed to the study design, interpretation of results, and critical revision of the manuscript. J.H. supervised the project and provided final approval of the version to be published. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Correspondence to Jingtao Wu or Yanhong Shao.

This study was approved by the Academic Committee of Leshan Normal University (LSNU202404085). All participants and their parents provided written informed consent.

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The authors declare no competing interests.

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